UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 


STUDIES  ON  A  NUTRITIONAL  DISEASE  OF  POULTRY 
CAUSED  DY  VITAMIN  A  DEFICIENCY 


BY 

J.  R.  BEACH 


BULLETIN  No.  378 

May,  1924 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PRINTING  OFFICE 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 

1924 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2012  with  funding  from 

University  of  California,  Davis  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/studiesonnutriti378beac 


STUDIES  ON  A  NUTRITIONAL  DISEASE  OF  POULTRY 
CAUSED  BY  VITAMIN  A  DEFICIENCY 

By  J.  R.  BEACHi 


In  1919,  Haring,  Beach,  and  Jaffa2  reported  a  study  of  several 
outbreaks  of  a  disease  occurring  in  flocks  of  pullets  in  California, 
which,  so  far  as  could  be  determined  by  a  search  of  the  literature,  had 
not  been  previously  described.  The  symptoms  resembled  those  of 
"roup"  more  than  of  any  other  disease  of  fowls  known  to  the  writer, 
but  differed  enough  so  that  a  differential  diagnosis  was  readily  made. 

Owners  of  flocks  in  which  the  disease  occurred  reported  losses  of 
about  10  per  cent  of  their  fowls  within  from  two  to  six  weeks.  Exam- 
ination of  several  such  flocks  showed  that  from  10  to  20  per  cent  of 
the  fowls  had  typical  lesions.  All  flocks  observed  consisted  of  fowls 
in  their  first  laying  year  or  of  pullets  that  had  not  reached  laying  age. 

Age  of  Fowls  Affected. — The  disease  occurs  more  frequently  in 
fowls  between  the  ages  of  four  and  twelve  months  than  in  those 
younger  or  older.  The  explanation  of  the  infrequency  with  which 
younger  birds  are  affected  is  that  they  usually  receive  an  adequate 
diet,  and  not  that  they  are  less  susceptible.  Older  birds  are  appar- 
ently quite  resistant  to  the  disease  although  it  has  been  observed  in 
fowls  more  than  two  years  old. 

Time  of  Occurrence. — Outbreaks  have  been  confined  largely  to 
periods  of  the  year  when  dry  or  cold  conditions,  or  both,  made  it 
difficult  to  raise  green  food.  These  periods  comprise  the  late  summer 
and  fall  months  before  the  first  rainfall,  and  the  winter  months, 
particularly  January. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  characteristic  symptoms  of  this 
disease  are  confined  to  the  head  and  involve  the  nasal  passages,  the 
mouth,  pharynx,  and  esophagus,  and  the  eyes. 

A  discharge  from  the  nostrils  of  a  watery  or  viscid  fluid  is  nearly 
always  present.  Later  this  may  collect  in  the  infraorbital  sinuses, 
become  transformed  into  a  caseous  mass  and  cause  swelling  of  the 
face.  This  involvement  of  nasal  passages  is  indistinguishable  from 
the  commonly  occurring  "colds  and  roup"  and  in  the  absence  of 
other  symptoms  is  of  no  diagnostic  value. 

i  Assistant  Professor  of  Veterinary  Science. 
2  Calif.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Ept.  (1920),  79. 


4  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

The  lesions  in  the  mouth,  pharynx,  esophagus,  and  crop  consist  of 
collections  of  white  caseous  material  in  the  mucous  glands  (fig.  1). 
On  the  surface  of  the  mucous  membrane  they  appear  as  circular  white 
pustule-like  caseous  patches,  from  0.5  to  2  mm.  in  diameter.  The 
application  of  pressure  around  them  forces  out  a  slender  cylindrical 
caseous  mass,  2  or  3  mm.  in  length.  These  lesions  commonly  appear 
first  in  the  pharynx  and  later  on  the  tongue,  on  the  floor  of  the 
mouth,  and  in  the  esophagus. 

The  number  of  pustules  may  remain  small  or  become  so  large 
as  to  almost  cover  the  mucous  membrane  surface.  On  autopsy, 
pustules  are  frequently  found  in  the  esophagus  throughout  its  entire 
length.  Unattached  masses  of  white  caseous  material  are  often  pres- 
ent, particularly  in  the  cleft  palate,  pharynx,  and  larynx.  Pustules, 
in  very  many  cases,  precede  all  other  definite  symptoms  (figs.  2  and  3). 
They  have  been  found  in  nearly  all  affected  fowls  examined  and,  so 
far  as  is  known,  are  associated  with  no  other  disease  or  condition. 

The  lesions  in  the  eye  consist  of  an  ophthalmia  which  produces 
puffiness  of  the  eyelids,  reddening  of  the  conjunctiva,  a  profuse  watery 
secretion  which  soon  becomes  viscid  and  may  glue  the  eyelids  together. 
These  symptoms  are  followed  by  the  formation  of  a  tightly  adherent 
white  film  over  the  membrana  nictitans  and  the  accumulation  of  a 
mass  of  white  caseous  material  within  the  conjunctival  sacs  (fig.  4). 
The  film  over  the  membrana  nictitans  and  the  whiteness  of  the  caseous 
material  are  the  characteristics  of  these  eye  lesions  which  differentiate 
them  from  similar  lesions  due  to  other  causes.  Eye  involvement  has 
been  observed  in  less  than  50  per  cent  of  diseased  fowls  examined  and, 
as  a  rule,  has  been  preceded  or  accompanied  by  the  characteristic 
pustules  in  the  pharynx. 

Marked  emaciation  and  weakness  (fig.  5)  occur  in  the  later  stages 
of  the  disease,  although  many  fowls  die  suddenly  while  still  in  good 
flesh.  In  many  cases  there  is  a  deposit  of  a  chalk-like  substance  on 
the  feathers  below  the  vent. 

Besides  the  lesions  mentioned,  the  most  prominent  changes  found 
on  autopsy  are  in  the  kidneys.  These  organs  are  usually  pale  and 
marked  by  a  network  of  fine  white  lines  which  are  urate-filled  tubules 
(fig.  6).  In  some  cases  the  kidneys  are  spotted  with  collections  of 
urates  (fig.  7).  Occasionally  there  is  a  deposit  of  urates  on  the  heart, 
pericardium,  liver,  omentum,  and  intestines.  In  some  cases  the 
ureters  are  greatly  distended  with  urates. 

The  bacteriological  examination  of  diseased  birds  showed  the 
caseous  material  in  the  mouth  and  eyes  to  be  swarming  with  several 
types  of  rod-shaped  bacteria  which  grew  readily  on  ordinary  culture 


BULLETIN  378]         STUDIES  ON  A  NUTRITIONAL  DISEASE  OF  POULTRY  5 

media.  Attempts  to  produce  the  disease,  however,  in  healthy  birds 
by  inoculation  with  cultures  or  with  the  caseous  material  itself  failed 
in  all  cases.     Confining  healthy  with  diseased  fowls  in  small  coops 


Fig.  1. — An  advanced  case  of  vitamin  A  deficiency,  showing  the  pharynx 
and  esophagus  studded  with  pustules. 


6  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

also  gave  negative  results.  No  bacteria  were  found  in  smears  nor 
growth  obtained  in  cultures  made  from  the  heart  blood,  liver,  spleen, 
and  kidneys. 

Results  of  Control  Experiments. — When  all  attempts  to  transmit 
the  disease  or  to  establish  any  etiological  factors  of  an  infectious 
nature  failed,  incorrect  feeding  methods  were  suspected  to  be  the 
cause.  Since  in  all  flocks  affected  the  supply  of  green  food  was  very 
scanty  or  entirely  lacking,  an  insufficient  amount  of  greens  was  the 
first  dietary  factor  suspected.  The  nature  of  the  kidney  lesions  sug- 
gested too  much  protein  and  the  appearance  of  typical  lesions  in  fowls 
confined  in  cages  and  fed  only  whole  grain  suggested  too  little  protein 
as  possible  causes.  In  all  field  outbreaks,  however,  the  amount  of 
protein  in  the  rations  was  not  deficient.  The  report  of  one  owner 
that  the  disease  had  appeared  a  short  time  after  the  introduction  of 
coconut-meal  into  the  ration  brought  this  food  stuff  under  suspicion. 
It  was,  therefore,  suggested  to  owners  of  affected  flocks  that  the 
disease  might  be  controlled  by  increasing  the  amount  of  green  food, 
decreasing  the  percentage  of  protein,  and  entirely  eliminating  the 
coconut-meal  from  the  ration. 

The  following  reports  of  observations  made  in  four  flocks  are 
given  as  illustrations  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  adoption  of  these 
suggestions : 

Flock  No.  1 — Contained  702  hens,  15  months  old,  115  or  16.3  per 
cent  of  which  were  diseased.  Seventy-five  birds  had  died  within  two 
weeks.  Very  little  green  food  had  been  given  for  five  weeks.  Within 
thirty  days  after  the  ration  was  changed  and  the  greens  increased, 
the  disease  had  entirely  disappeared  with  a  loss  of  but  twenty 
additional  birds. 

Flock  No.  2 — Contained  784  pullets,  about  4  months  old.  Fifty- 
nine  or  7.5  per  cent  were  diseased.  No  greens  had  been  fed  for  a 
month.  About  one  hundred  had  died  during  this  period.  Greens 
were  fed  liberally  and  the  flock  entirely  recovered  in  thirty  days  with 
a  mortality  of  but  nineteen  additional  birds. 

Flock  No.  3— Consisted  of  1336  hens,  15  months  old,  239,  or  17.8 
per  cent  of  which  had  characteristic  lesions.  These  birds  had  free 
access  to  growing  corn  a  short  distance  from  their  house,  but  few  of 
them  were  getting  it.  About  one  hundred  and  fifty  had  died  within 
six  weeks.  Greens  were  fed  to  the  flock  in  the  yards  and  within  two 
weeks  the  number  of  diseased  was  reduced  to  forty.  The  additional 
loss  from  death  was  but  eighteen  fowls. 

Flock  No.  4 — Consisted  of  approximately  700  pullets,  about  4 
months  old.  Detailed  examination  was  not  made  of  this  flock  but 
at  least  10  per  cent  were  visibly  sick.     Examination  of  several  indi- 


BULLETIN  378]         STUDIES  ON  A  NUTRITIONAL  DISEASE  OF  POULTRY  7 

viduals  revealed  the  characteristic  lesions.  The  owner  stated  that 
he  was  feeding  all  the  greens  that  it  was  possible  for  him  to  obtain. 
He  was  then  advised  to  feed  the  greens  in  small  amounts  widely  scat- 
tered three  times  each  day  instead  of  feeding  the  total  daily  supply 
at  one  time  in  a  trough.  It  was  thought  that  this  change  in  the  feed- 
ing method,  by  permitting  each  fowl  to  get  a  more  nearly  equal  share 
and  eliminating  all  waste,  might  result  in  better  utilization  of  the 
scanty  supply  of  greens.  Within  a  week  the  flock  showed  marked 
improvement  and  no  further  losses  occurred. 


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Fig.  2. — The  appearance  of  a  few  pustules  in  the  pharynx  is  often  the  first 
indication  of  vitamin  A  deficiency  in  fowls. 

The  success  in  controlling  outbreaks  so  strengthened  the  theory 
that  the  disease  is  caused  by  nutritional  factors,  that  additional 
investigation  seemed  warranted.  Accordingly  a  controlled  feeding 
experiment  designed  to  furnish  evidence  concerning  all  suspected 
feeding  errors,  i.e.,  a  deficiency  of  green  food,  an  excess  of  protein 
and  coconut-meal,  a  deficiency  of  protein,  was  carried  out  during 
1920-21  and  briefly  reported  on  in  the  Report  of  the  California  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  and  other  publications.2 

sBeach,  J.  E.,  A  nutritional  disease  resembling  roup.  Calif.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 
Eep.,  1920-21,  140. 

Differential  diagnosis  of  diseases  of  the  head  of  fowls.  Poultry  Science,  1,  1-8 
(1921). 

Progress  in  combatting  poultry  disease  in  the  United  States.  Trans,  of  the 
First  World's  Poultry  Congress,  1,  213-235   (1921). 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


EXPERIMENT  No.  I— PART  1 

In  this  experiment,  eight  pens  of  eighteen  pullets  each,  six  months 
old,  were  used.  These  were  divided  into  four  groups  of  two  pens  each. 
A  different  mash  mixture,  fed  dry  in  hoppers,  was  given  to  each  group. 
One  pen  of  each  group  was  fed  all  the  green  food  (alfalfa  and  green 
barley)  they  would  eat  without  waste,  and  the  other  pen  was  fed 
none.  The  same  grain  mixture,  consisting  of  barley,  50  per  cent; 
coarse  cracked  yellow  corn,  25  per  cent ;  and  milo  maize,  25  per  cent, 
was  given  to  all  pens.  The  experiment  was  started  February  19, 
1920,  and  continued  until  February  8,  1921.  Each  fowl  was  carefully 
examined  at  from  seven  to  fourteen-day  intervals. 

Group  I  (pens  32a  and  38a)  was  fed  the  following  mash  mixture: 

Wheat  Bran  50  lbs. 

Wheat  Shorts 50  lbs. 

Ground  Barley   50  lbs. 

Meat  Scrap  10  lbs. 

Fish  Scrap  10  lbs. 

Soya  Bean  Meal 20  lbs. 

This  mixture  was  believed  to  furnish  a  proper  percentage  of 
protein  and  contained  no  coconut-meal.  Greens  were  fed  to  pen  32a 
but  not  to  38a. 

No  birds  in  32a  became  affected  with  the  nutritional  disease. 
Three  died  from  other  causes. 

One  bird  in  pen  38a  died  from  another  cause  fourteen  days  after 
the  experiment  was  begun.  All  of  the  seventeen  remaining  developed 
typical  lesions.  The  first  lesion  was  observed  on  the  forty-third  day 
and  all  were  affected  by  the  one  hundred  and  fourth  day.  Pustules 
alone  occurred  in  sixteen  of  these  and  both  pustules  and  eye  lesions 
in  one.  Five  recovered  and  twelve  died.  Characteristic  kidney 
changes  were  found  in  all.  Cultures  and  smears  from  the  heart  and 
liver  of  nine  were  negative. 

Group  II  (pens  32b  and  38b)  was  fed  a  mash  mixture  consisting  of 

Wheat  Bran  50  lbs. 

Wheat  Shorts  50  lbs. 

Ground  Barley   50  lbs. 

Meat  Scrap  10  lbs. 

Fish  Scrap  10  lbs. 

Coconut-meal   40  lbs. 

This  mixture  was  believed  to  provide  a  suitable  amount  of  protein 
and  also  contained  coconut-meal.  Pen  32b  received  greens  and  38b 
received  none. 


BULLETIN  378]         STUDIES  ON  A  NUTRITIONAL  DISEASE  OF  POULTRY  9 

One  bird  in  32b  developed  ophthalmia  and  died  on  the  fifty-first 
day.  Characteristic  kidney  lesions  were  found  on  autopsy.  This 
fowl  had  a  severe  cold  when  the  experiment  started,  which  soon 
resulted  in  such  marked  swelling'  of  both  infraorbital  sinuses  that  the 
eyelids  were  nearly  closed.  This  condition  seriously  interfered  with 
the  consumption  of  food  and  possibly  therefore  was  responsible  for 
the  occurrence  of  the  nutritional  disease  lesions.  One  fowl  died  from 
a  severe  intestinal  worm  infestation.  All  others  in  this  pen  remained 
healthy. 


Fig.  3. — Although  outwardly  this  fowl  appears  in  perfect  health,  the  char- 
acteristic pustules  of  vitamin  A  deficiency  are  present  in  the  pharynx. 

All  of  the  eighteen  birds  in  pen  38b  became  affected  with  the 
nutritional  disease.  The  first  lesions  were  found  on  the  forty-second 
day  and  all  birds  had  exhibited  lesions  by  the  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
first  day.  Seventeen  exhibited  pustules  only  and  one  both  pustules 
and  ophthalmia.  Eight  recovered  and  ten  died.  One  of  the  ten  dead 
was  not  autopsied  but  typical  kidney  changes  were  found  in  nine. 
Smears  and  cultures  from  the  heart  and  liver  of  these  were  negative. 

Group  III  (pens  33a  and  39a)  was  fed  the  same  mash  mixture  as 
Group  II  with  the  exception  that  it  contained  50  per  cent  more  coco- 
nut-meal. This  was  believed  to  furnish  an  excessive  amount  of  both 
protein  and  coconut-meal.    Greens  were  fed  in  33a  but  not  in  39a. 


10  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

A  few  pustules  were  observed  in  the  pharynx  of  one  bird  in  pen 
33a  when  the  experiment  was  begun.  Two  others  exhibited  a  few 
pustules  on  the  seventeenth  day.  The  lesions  had  disappeared  from 
all  three  on  the  thirty-seventh  day  and  the  fowls  remained  healthy. 
No  other  fowls  became  affected.    Four  died  from  other  causes. 

In  pen  39a  two  fowls  died  during"  the  first  month  from  intestinal 
parasites.  The  remaining  sixteen  became  affected  with  the  nutritional 
disease.  The  first  case  was  observed  on  the  forty-third  day.  Twelve 
had  pustules  alone  and  four  both  pustules  and  ophthalmia.  Seven 
recovered  and  nine  died.  Typical  kidney  changes  were  found  in  all 
of  these.  Smears  and  cultures  made  from  the  hearts  and  livers  of 
these  were  negative. 

Group  IV  (pens  33b  and  39b)  was  fed  no  mash.  This  was  con- 
sidered to  provide  a  ration  with  less  than  the  normal  amount  of 
protein  for  laying  hens.    Greens  were  fed  in  33b,  but  not  in  39b. 

None  of  the  birds  in  33b  became  affected  with  the  nutritional 
disease.    Three  died  from  other  causes. 

Four  fowls  in  39b  died  from  ruptured  yolk.  Bad.  avisepticum 
was  isolated  from  three  of  them.  One  other  fowl  suffered  a  prolapse 
of  the  uterus  and  was  killed  by  its  mates.  One  died  from  pulmonary 
hemorrhage.  The  twelve  remaining  all  developed  typical  pustules. 
Three  recovered  and  nine  died.  The  characteristic  kidney  changes 
were  found  in  all  the  dead.  Smears  and  cultures  made  from  the  hearts 
and  livers  were  negative. 

A  tabulated  summary  of  results  is  given  in  table  I. 

Discussion  of  the  Experiment. — With  the  exception  of  nine  birds 
which  died  from  other  causes,  all  of  the  seventj'-two  birds  in  the 
pens  in  which  no  green  food  was  fed  developed  the  characteristic 
pustules  in  the  mouth  and  pharynx  or  ophthalmia.  Sixty-two  per 
cent  of  these  died.  Nearly  all  the  deaths  occurred  within  the  first  four 
months.  Most  of  the  fowls  that  survived  this  period  appeared  to  have 
developed  a  tolerance  for  the  ration  deficient  in  green  food.  In  a 
few  fowls  that  recovered  the  lesions  were  recurrent. 

In  the  pens  in  which  greens  were  fed,  there  were  but  four  birds 
which  at  any  time  exhibited  any  nutritional  disease  symptoms  and 
but  one  that  died.  One  of  these  had  the  lesions  when  the  experiment 
was  started  and  two  others  developed  during  the  first  month  a  very 
few  pustules  which  remained  but  a  few  days.  The  general  health 
of  these  at  no  time  appeared  to  be  impaired.  The  occurrence  of  the 
nutritional-  disease  lesions  in  the  one  fowl  that  died  was  probably 
influenced  by  a  swelling  of  the  infraorbital  sinuses  which  caused  a 
partial  closure  of  the  eyes  and  thus  interfered  with  food  consumption. 


BULLETIN  378]         STUDIES  ON  A  NUTRITIONAL  DISEASE  OF  POULTRY 


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12  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Since  the  affected  birds  were  uniformly  distributed  throughout 
the  pens  in  which  no  greens  were  fed,  irrespective  of  the  rest  of  the 
ration,  and  the  number  affected  was  so  small  as  to  be  almost  negligible 
in  the  pens  in  which  greens  were  fed,  it  appeared  quite  certain  that 
a  lack  of  greens  was  the  sole  cause  of  the  occurrence  of  nutritional 
disease  among  the  fowls  used  in  this  experiment. 


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Fig.  4. — The  characteristic  ophthalmia  of  vitamin  A  deficiency. 


EXPERIMENT  No.  I— PART  2 

This  was  undertaken  to  further  demonstrate  a  deficiency  of  green 
food  in  the  ration  as  the  etiological  factor  of  this  nutritional  disease. 
From  March  10,  1921,  one  month  after  the  preceding  experiment  was 
terminated,  until  August  28,  1921,  greens  were  withheld  from  pens 
32a,  32b,  33a,  and  33b,  all  of  which  had  previously  received  greens, 
and  fed  to  pens  38a,  38b,  39a  and  39b,  which  had  previously  received 
no  greens.  The  rations  were  otherwise  unchanged.  The  results  were 
as  follows: 

Pen  32a,  fifteen  fowls.  Nine  developed  pustules.  One  of  these 
also  had  ophthalmia.  One  died  and  eight  recovered.  The  first  case 
was  found  on  May  13,  the  sixty-third  day  of  the  experiment.  No  new 
cases  appeared  after  July  6. 


BULLETIN  378]         STUDIES  ON  A  NUTRITIONAL  DISEASE  OF  POULTRY  13 

Pen  32b,  fifteen  fowls.  Ten  developed  pustules.  None  had 
ophthalmia.  Three  died  and  seven  recovered.  The  first  case  appeared 
on  May  21,  the  seventy-third  day  of  the  experiment.  No  new  cases 
appeared  after  July  6. 

Pen  33a,  thirteen  fowls.  Ten  developed  pustules.  Two  had 
ophthalmia  in  addition.  Four  of  these  died  and  six  recovered.  The 
first  case  was  observed  on  June  14,  the  ninety-fourth  day  of  the 
experiment.     No  new  cases  appeared  after  July  6. 


Fig.  5. — Typical  appearance  of  fowls  with  the  disease  caused  by  vitamin  A 

deficiency. 

Pen  33b,  fourteen  fowls.  Pustules  appeared  in  only  one  fowl. 
This  bird  recovered. 

In  pens  38a,  38b,  39a,  and  39b  no  cases  of  nutritional  disease 
appeared  after  the  feeding  of  greens  was  begun. 

Summary:  Thirty  of  the  fifty-seven  birds  in  the  four  pens  in  which 
no  greens  were  fed  became  affected  with  nutritional  disease  lesions. 
Eight  of  the  thirty  died,  the  remainder  having  but  mild  lesions  which 
soon  disappeared.  Ophthalmia  was  observed  in  but  three  birds,  the 
lesions  in  all  others  being  confined  to  pustules.  The  lesions  were 
slower  in  appearing,  milder  in  character,  and  the  percentage  of  birds 
affected  much  smaller  than  in  the  preceding  portion  of  the  experi- 
ment. This  was  thought  to  be  due  very  probably  to  the  increased  age 
of  the  birds  when  the  second  portion  of  the  experiment  was  carried  out. 


14  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

No  evidence  of  nutritional  disease  was  observed  in  any  of  the  pens 
in  which  greens  were  fed. 

These  results  confirmed  and  strengthened  the  inference  drawn 
from  the  results  of  the  first  portion  of  the  experiment  and  completed 
the  demonstration  that  a  deficiency  of  green  food  in  the  ration  was 
the  sole  causative  factor  of  the  occurrence  of  nutritional  disease  among 
the  birds  used  in  this  experiment. 

It  seems  quite  probable,  however,  that  green  food  did  not  prevent 
the  disease  merely  because  it  was  green  and  succulent,  but  because  it 
furnished  some  dietary  essential  which  was  lacking  in  the  other  in- 
gredients of  the  rations.  Otherwise  this  nutritional  disease  of  poultry 
presumably  would  be  very  prevalent  instead  of  being  practically  un- 
known in  the  middle  western  and  eastern  states  during  winter  months, 
when  many  flocks  received  very  little  or  no  green  food.  It  was  there- 
fore suspected  that  the  real  cause  of  the  disease  is  a  vitamin  or  mineral 
deficiency,  and  investigation  of  this  point  was  undertaken  on  April 
18,  1923. 


EXPERIMENT  No.  II 

The  general  plan  of  this  experiment  was  to  feed  fowls  a  suitable 
mash  and  grain  mixture  as  a  basal  ration  and  to  supplement  this  with 
known  good  sources  of  vitamines  A,  B,  and  C  or  a  salts  mixture, 
butter-milk,  or  green  food. 

The  basal  ration  used  during  the  first  two  and  one-half  months 
was  a  mash  consisting  of : 

Wheat  Bran  25  parts 

Wheat  Shorts  25  parts 

Yellow   Corn  Meal  - 25  parts 

Soya  Bean  Meal : 10  parts 

Meat  Scrap  15  parts 

and  a  commercial  ' '  chick  grain ' '  mixture  composed  of 

Cracked  Milo 6  parts 

Cracked  White  Egyptian  Corn 4  parts 

Cracked  Wheat  12  parts 

Cracked  Yellow   Corn 4  parts 

Cracked  Rice   1  part 

Steel  Cut   Oats 2  parts 

Ground  Bone 1  part 

It  was,  of  course,  recognized  that  this  ration  supplied  some  vitamin 
A  in  the  yellow  corn,  and  vitamin  B  in  all  of  the  grains.  However, 
it  does  not  differ  essentially  from  rations  fed  to  flocks  in  which  the 


Bulletin  378]         STUDIES  ON  A  NUTRITIONAL  DISEASE  OF  POULTRY 


15 


disease  had  occurred.    This  was  considered  to  indicate  that,  although 
these  vitamins  were  present,  the  amounts  were  deficient. 

On  August  1  it  was  thought  desirable  to  eliminate  yellow  corn 
from  the  ration,  so  as  to  make  it  more  nearly  vitamin  A  free,  and 


Fig.  6. — Kidneys  of  a  fowl  injured  by  vitamin  A  deficiency. 


16  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

therefore  ground  barley  was  substituted  for  the  yellow  cornmeal  in 
the  mash  and  the  grain  ration  changed  to  equal  parts  of  wheat,  barley, 
and  white  Egyptian  corn.  The  mash  was  fed  dry  in  hoppers  and 
the  grain  twice  daily  in  the  litter. 

Vitamin  A  was  supplied  by  cod-liver  oil,  1  cc.  of  which  was  given 
daily  with  a  pipette  to  each  bird. 

Five  per  cent  of  dried  yeast  was  added  to  the  mash  to  supply 
Vitamin  B. 

One  cc.  of  orange  juice  was  given  to  each  bird  daily  to  supply 
Vitamin  C. 

The  salts  mixture  contained: 

Calcium  Carbonate  30  parts 

Calcium  Phosphate  20  parts 

Sodium  Chloride  20  parts 

Sodium  Sulphate  15  parts 

Iron  Sulphate  15  parts 

Two  per  cent  of  this  was  added  to  the  mash. 

The  buttermilk  was  termed  "family  grade"  by  the  creamery  sup- 
plying it.  This  was  constantly  before  the  birds  in  place  of  water. 
The  green  food  was  blue  grass  and  clover  lawn  clippings.  Granite 
grit  was  available  at  all  times.  The  birds  were  confined  in  houses 
with  tight  board  floors  and  shavings  litter. 

The  birds  were  three-month-old  White  Leghorns.  They  were 
divided  into  eleven  pens  of  fifteen  birds  each,  and  treated  as  follows: 

Pen  No.  1 — Basal  ration  only  (control). 

Pen  No.  2 — Basal  ration  plus  salts  mixture. 

Pen  No.  3 — Basal  ration  plus  cod-liver  oil. 

Pen  No.  4 — Basal  ration  plus  yeast. 

Pen  No.  5 — Basal  ration  plus  orange  juice. 

Pen  No.  6 — Basal  ration  plus  cod-liver  oil  and  yeast. 

Pen  No.  7 — Basal  ration  plus  cod-liver  oil  and  orange  juice. 

Pen  No.  8 — Basal  ration  plus  yeast  and  orange  juice. 

Pen  No.  9 — Basal  ration  plus  cod-liver  oil,  yeast,  and  orange  juice. 

Pen  No.  10 — Basal  ration  plus  buttermilk. 

Pen  No.  11 — Basal  ration  plus  lawn  clippings. 

With  one  exception,  no  characteristic  lesions  appeared  until 
August  1,  three  and  one-half  months  after  the  experiment  was  started, 
when  ten  cases  were  found  scattered  through  Pens  1,  2,  4,  5  and  8. 
The  confinement  of  these  cases  to  those  pens  in  which  neither  cod-liver 
oil  nor  greens  were  fed  seemed  to  point  toward  Vitamin  A  deficiency. 
This,  together  with  the  fact  that  about  twice  as  much  time  was 
required  for  the  appearance  of  lesions  as  in  the  preceding  experiment, 


Bulletin  378]         STUDIES  ON  A  NUTRITIONAL  DISEASE  OF  POULTRY  17 


Fig.  7. — Kidneys  spotted  with  urates  due  to  vitamin  A  deficiency. 


18  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

made  it  seem  possible  that  the  yellow  corn  in  the  ration  was  supplying 
enough  Vitamin  A  to  partly  protect  the  fowls.  For  this  reason  the 
changes  in  the  basal  ration  already  noted  were  made  on  August  I. 

The  final  results  obtained  in  the  different  pens  were : 

Pen  1 — Basal  ration  only  (control).  Two  fowls  with  typical 
lesions  were  found  on  August  1 — the  one  hundred  and  fifth  day.  One 
had  from  five  to  ten  pustules  in  the  pharynx  and  the  other  a  slight 
affection  of  both  eyes.  One  fowl  died  on  September  19  from  rupture 
of  the  vent.  The  fourteen  remaining  were  either  sick  with,  or  dead 
from,  nutritional  disease  by  September  14,  the  one  hundred  and  forty- 
ninth  day.  All  were  dead  by  October  3,  the  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
eighth  day.  In  two  that  showed  typical  urate  kidneys  on  autopsy, 
a  nasal  discharge  was  the  only  ante-mortem  symptom,  and  in  one, 
emaciation.  Mouth  lesions  alone  occurred  in  four  cases,  both  pustules 
and  ophthalmia  in  five  cases,  and  ophthalmia  alone  in  two  cases.  All 
had  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils  and  two  had  distention  of  both  infra- 
orbital sinuses. 

Pen  2 — Basal  ration  plus  salts  mixture.  One  bird  died  on  July  5 
from  chronic  coecidiosis.  The  kidneys  appeared  slightly  more  pale 
than  is  normal,  but  could  not  be  considered  as  typical  of  nutritional 
disease.  On  August  1,  the  one  hundred  and  fifth  day,  definite  pustules 
were  found  in  one.  "By  x\.ugust  29,  the  one  hundred  and  thirty-third 
day,  all  of  the  remaining  fourteen  birds  had  become  sick  and  three  had 
died.  All  were  dead  from  nutritional  disease  by  September  29,  the  one 
hundred  and  sixty-fourth  day.  In  one  of  the  dead  the  only  ante- 
mortem  symptom  was  emaciation,  but  typical  "urate"  kidneys  were 
found  on  autopsy.  In  five  cases  pustules  only  were  found,  in  seven 
cases  both  pustules  and  ophthalmia,  and  in  one  case  ophthalmia  only. 
Kidney  changes  typical  of  nutritional  disease  were  found  in  all.  All 
had  a  nasal  discharge  and  in  four  there  was  distention  of  the  infra- 
orbital sinuses. 

Pen  3 — Basal  ration  plus  cod-liver  oil.  Except  for  a  nasal  dis- 
charge which  was  present  in  twelve  fowls  some  time  during  the  experi- 
ment, all  birds  remained  healthy  until  October  10,  when  the  experi- 
ment was  terminated. 

Pen  4 — Basal  ration  plus  yeast.  One  bird  died  suddenly  on  May 
21.  Autopsy  revealed  the  kidneys  filled  with  urates  and  a  deposit 
of  urates  on  the  surface  of  heart,  pericardium  and  all  of  the  abdominal 
organs.-  -It -was  thought  that  this  condition  might  have  resulted  from 
yeast  feeding  rather  than  from  nutritional  disease.  A  second  bird 
that  died  on  June  29  exhibited  similar  lesions.    Death  was  attributed 


Bulletin  378]        STUDIES  ON  A  NUTRITIONAL  DISEASE  OP  POULTRY  19 

to  the  same  cause.  The  third  fatality  occurred  on  June  3.  Marked 
emaciation  from  an  undetermined  cause  was  the  only  abnormality 
found. 

The  first  definite  indications  of  nutritional  disease  were  observed 
on  July  20,  the  ninety-third  day,  when  typical  pustules  and  ophthal- 
mia of  both  eyes  were  found  in  one  bird.  This  fowl  quickly  became 
extremely  emaciated  and  died  on  July  31,  the  one  hundred  and  fourth 
day.  Spotted  urate  kidneys  were  found  on  autopsy.  The  disease 
progressed  with  such  rapidity  in  this  pen  that  all  had  sickened  and 
six  more  had  died  by  August  29,  the  one  hundred  and  thirty-third 
day.  All  were  dead  by  September  21,  the  one  hundred  and  fifty-sixth 
day.  Five  cases  exhibited  pustules  only  and  seven  both  pustules  and 
ophthalmia.  Typical  urate  kidneys  were  found  in  all  and  a  deposit 
of  urates  on  the  surface  of  the  abdominal  organs  in  one  of  these. 
A  nasal  discharge  was  present  in  all  and  distention  of  the  infraorbital 
sinuses  in  four. 

Pen  5 — Basal  ration  plus  orange  juice.  One  bird  died  from  an 
undetermined  cause  on  May  31.  The  first  evidence  of  nutritional 
disease  was  a  slight  ophthalmia  in  one  bird  on  August  1,  the  one 
hundred  and  fifth  day.  All  of  the  fourteen  remaining  had  become 
sick  and  two  had  died  by  September  7,  the  one  hundred  and  forty- 
second  day.  All  except  two,  which  were  discovered  to  be  eating  eggs, 
were  dead  by  October  3,  the  one  hundred  and  sixty-eighth  day.  There 
were  seven  cases  with  pustules  alone  and  seven  with  both  pustules  and 
ophthalmia.  Nasal  discharge  occurred  in  all.  Typical  urate  kidneys 
were  found  in  all  that  died. 

Pen  6 — Basal  ration  plus  cod-liver  oil  and  yeast.  One  bird  died 
from  chronic  coccidiosis.  A  nasal  discharge  wTas  present  for  a  short 
time  in  one.  Otherwise,  all  birds  in  this  pen  remained  healthy  until 
the  termination  of  the  experiment  on  October  10. 

Pen  7 — Basal  ration  plus  cod-liver  oil  and  orange  juice.  Three 
deaths  occurred  in  this  pen,  one  from  heat  stroke,  one  from  chronic 
coccidiosis,  and  one  from  strangulation.  Eight  birds  had  a  nasal 
discharge  of  short  duration.  No  other  evidence  of  disease  of  any  kind 
appeared. 

Pen  8 — Basal  ration  plus  yeast  and  orange  juice.  One  bird  died 
on  July  21  from  chronic  coccidiosis.  On  August  1,  the  one  hundred 
and  fifth  day,  five  fowls  showed  definite  symptoms  of  nutritional 
disease.  Three  had  pustules  only  and  two  both  pustules  and  ophthal- 
mia. All  had  sickened  and  six  had  died  b}^  August  29,  the  one  hundred 
and  thirty-third  day.     All  had  died  by  September  24,  the  one  hun- 


20  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

dred  and  fifty-ninth  day.  There  were  five  cases  of  pustules  alone, 
seven  of  pustules  and  ophthalmia,  and  two  of  ophthalmia  alone.  A 
nasal  discharge  was  present  in  all  and  distention  of  the  infraorbital 
sinuses  of  one.    Autopsy  showed  typical  urate  kidneys  in  all  cases. 

Pen  9 — Basal  ration  plus  cod-liver  oil,  yeast  and  orange  juice. 

Three  deaths  occurred  in  the  pen,  one  from  chronic  coecidiosis, 
one  from  ruptured  yolk,  and  one  from  leukemia.  Nine  of  the  fowls 
had  a  nasal  discharge  some  time  during  the  experiment.  Aside  from 
the  preceding,  the  birds  all  remained  healthy. 

Pen  10 — Basal  ration  plus  buttermilk.  The  first  death  occurred 
on  May  15  from  an  undetermined  cause.  Symptoms  of  nutritional 
disease  were  observed  in  two  fowls  on  August  13,  the  one  hundred  and 
seventeenth  day.  Eight  other  fowls  subsequently  developed  lesions, 
making  a  total  of  ten  cases.  Two  of  these  died.  The  remainder  still 
had  lesions  but  were  otherwise  apparently  healthy  when  the  experi- 
ment was  terminated  on  October  10.  Two  fowls  which  had  exhibited 
no  symptoms  died.  Typical  urate  kidneys  were  found  in  both  and 
urate  deposits  on  the  heart  and  abdominal  organs  of  one.  Two  fowls 
remained  healthy  throughout. 

Pen  11 — Basal  ration  plus  lawn  clippings.  Seven  fowls  had  a 
nasal  discharge  of  short  duration  some  time  during  the  experiment 
but  otherwise  all  remained  healthy. 

A  tabulated  summary  of  the  experiment  is  given  in  table  2. 

Discussion  of  the  Experiment. — With  the  exception  of  seven  birds 
which  died  from  other  causes,  all  of  the  seventy-five  birds  in  the  five 
pens  in  which  the  basal  ration  was  fed  alone  or  supplemented  by  the 
salts  mixture,  yeast,  orange  juice,  or  yeast  and  orange  juice,  developed 
characteristic  pustules  in  the  mouth  and  pharynx,  ophthalmia,  or 
kidney  lesions.  Sixty-six  of  these  died  and  two  were  living  at  the 
termination  of  the  experiment,  although  pustules  were  still  present 
in  both.  These  two  fowls  were  found  to  be  eating  eggs,  which  very 
possibly  supplied  sufficient  Vitamin  A  to  prevent  death. 

In  the  one  pen  in  which  buttermilk  was  fed,  nutritional  disease 
affected  twelve  birds,  only  four  of  which  died.  Analyses  of  several 
samples  of  the  buttermilk  showed  a  butterfat  content  of  from  0.1  to 
0.5  per  cent.  This  very  probably  supplied  sufficient  Vitamin  A  to 
modify  the  disease  in  this  pen. 

The  lesions  in  the  eighty  birds  affected  were  distributed  as  follows : 
thirty-five,  or  43.75  per  cent,  had  pustules  only ;  fourteen,  or  17.50 
per  cent,  had  ophthalmia  only;  twenty-five,  or  31.25  per  cent,  had 


Bulletin  378]         STUDIES  ON  A  NUTRITIONAL  DISEASE  OF  POULTRY 


21 


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22  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

both  pustules  and  ophthalmia;  and  six,  or  7.50  per  cent,  had  kidney 
lesions  only.     Definite  kidney  lesions  were  found  in  all  on  autopsy. 

On  the  other  hand,  all  of  the  seventy-five  birds  in  the  five  pens  in 
which  the  basal  ration  was  supplemented  by  cod-liver  oil,  cod-liver  oil 
and  yeast,  cod-liver  oil  and  orange  juice,  cod-liver  oil,  yeast  and 
orange  juice,  or  lawn  clippings  remained  entirely  free  from  all  the 
symptoms  and  lesions  which  characterize  the  nutritional  disease. 

Conclusions. — These  results  should  justify  the  conclusion  that  the 
disease  is  due  to  Vitamin  A  deficiency. 

The  possibility  that  it  is  Vitamin  D  rather  than  Vitamin  A  in  the 
cod-liver  oil  that  prevents  the  development  of  this  disease  would  seem 
to  be  controverted  by  the  following : 

First. — The  similarity  of  the  ophthalmia  to  that  occurring  in  rats 
fed  a  ration  deficient  in  vitamin  A  and  the  total  lack  of  any  symptom 
of  rickets  suggestive  of  vitamin  D  deficiency. 

Second — Green  food  proved  as  effective  as  cod-liver  oil  while  the 
results  of  experiments  of  Hughes3  showed  that  green  food  would 
not  prevent  development  of  symptoms  of  rickets. 

Third. — Exposure  of  the  fowls  to  an  abundance  of  direct  sunlight 
through  the  open  front  of  the  houses  did  not  prevent  the  development 
of  this  disease,  although  Hughes'3  found  that  a  short  daily  exposure  to 
direct  sunlight  would  prevent  rickets. 

Vitamin  A  deficiency  as  the  cause  might  also  explain  the  apparent 
infrequent  occurrence  of  this  disease  during  winter  months  in  middle 
western  and  eastern  states  where  yellow  corn  in  poultry  rations  is 
more  extensively  used  than  in  California. 

It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  this  disease  which  the  writer  has 
previously  designated  as  a  nutritional  disease  resembling  roup  should 
now  be  designated  a  nutritional  disease  caused  by  vitamine  A  de- 
ficiency, although  the  name  nutritional  roup  might  be  more  suitable 
for  use  by  poultrymen. 

There  is  little  likelihood  of  this  disease  ever  occurring  in  any  flock 
plentifully  supplied  with  green  food  no  matter  how  deficient  in 
sources  of  vitamin  A  the  ration  may  otherwise  be.  In  time  of  scarcity 
of  green  food,  the  division  of  the  available  daily  supply  into  several 
feedings  of  small  amounts  and  the  liberal  use  of  yellow  corn  and 
buttermilk  in  the  ration  would  in  all  probability  at  least  partly  com- 
pensate for  the  deficiency. 

3  Science,  n.s.,  59,  21.     1924. 


STATION  PUBLICATIONS  AVAILABLE  FOR  FREE  DISTRIBUTION 


No. 
258. 

261. 

262. 

263. 
268. 
273. 

275. 

276. 
277. 
278. 
279. 
280. 

283. 
285. 
286. 
287. 
294. 
298. 
804. 

312. 
317. 

319. 
321. 
324. 

325. 


328. 
331. 
S34. 

335. 

336. 

339. 

343. 
344. 


Irrigation  and  Soil  Conditions  in  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Foothills,  California. 

Melaxuma  of  the  Walnut,  "Juglans 
regia." 

Citrus  Diseases  of  Florida  and  Cuba 
Compared  with  those  of  California. 

Size  Grades  for  Ripe  Olives. 

Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings. 

Preliminary  Report  on  Kearney  Vine- 
yard Experimental  Drain. 

The  Cultivation  of  Belladonna  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

The   Pomegranate. 

Sudan  Grass. 

Grain  Sorghums. 

Irrigation  of  Rice  in  California. 

Irrigation  of  Alfalfa  in  the  Sacramento 
Valley. 

The  Olive  Insects  of  California. 

The  Milk  Goat  in  California. 

Commercial   Fertilizers. 

Vinegar  from  Waste  Fruits. 

Bean   Culture  in   California. 

Seedless  Raisin  Grapes. 

A  Study  of  the  Effects  of  Freezes  on 
Citrus  in  California. 

Mariout  Barley. 

Selections  of  Stocks  in  Citrus  Propa- 
gation. 

Caprifigs  and  Caprification. 

Commercial  Production  of  Grape  Syrup. 

Storage  of  Perishable  Fruit  at  Freezing 
Temperatures. 

Rice  Irrigation  Measurements  and  Ex- 
periments in  Sacramento  Valley, 
1914-1919. 

Prune  Growing  in  California. 

Phylloxera-Resistant  Stocks. 

Preliminary  Volume  Tables  for  Second- 
Growth  Redwood. 

Cocoanut  Meal  as  a  Feed  for  Dairy 
Cows  and  Other  Livestock. 

The  Preparation  of  Nicotine  Dust  as 
an  Insecticide. 

The  Relative  Cost  of  Making  Logs  from 
Small   and   Large  Timber. 

Cheese  Pests  and  Their  Control. 

Cold  Storage  as  an  Aid  to  the  Market- 
ing of  Plums. 


BULLETINS 

No. 

346. 

347. 


348. 
349. 

350. 
351. 
352. 

353. 
354. 
355. 
357. 


358. 

359. 
360. 

361. 

862. 
363. 

364. 

366. 

367. 


369. 
370. 
371. 

372. 

373. 
374. 


375. 
376. 


Almond  Pollination. 

The  Control  of  Red  Spiders  in  Decidu- 
ous Orchards. 

Pruning  Young  Olive  Trees. 

A  Study  of  Sidedraft  and  Tractor 
Hitches. 

Agriculture  in  Out-over  Redwood  Lands. 

California  State  Dairy  Cow  Competition. 

Further  Experiments  in  Plum  Pollina- 
tion. 

Bovine  Infectious  Abortion. 

Results  of  Rice  Experiments  in  1922. 

The  Peach  Twig  Borer. 

A  Self-mixing  Dusting  Machine  for 
Applying  Dry  Insecticides  and 
Fungicides. 

Black  Measles,  Water  Berries,  and 
Related   Vine   Troubles. 

Fruit  Beverage  Investigations. 

Gum  Diseases  of  Citrus  Trees  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Preliminary  Yield  Tables  for  Second 
Growth  Redwood. 

Dust  and  the  Tractor  Engine. 

The  Pruning  of  Citrus  Trees  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Fungicidal  Dusts  for  the  Control  of 
Bunt. 

Turkish  Tobacco  Culture,  Curing  and 
Marketing. 

Methods  of  Harvesting  and  Irrigation 
in  Relation  to  Mouldy  Walnuts. 

Bacterial  Decomposition  of  Olives  dur- 
ing Pickling. 

Comparison  of  Woods  for  Butter  Boxes 

Browning  of  Yellow  Newtown  Apples. 

The  Relative  Cost  of  Yarding  Small 
and  Large  Timber. 

The  Cost  of  Producing  Market  Milk  and 
Butterfat  on  246  California  Dairies. 

Pear  Pollination. 

A  Survey  of  Orchard  Practices  in  the 
Citrus  Industry  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

Results  of  Rice  Experiments  at  Cor- 
tena,  1923. 

Sun-Drying  and  Dehydration  of  Wal- 
nuts. 


CIRCULARS 

No.  No. 
70.  Observations   on    the    Status   of    Corn  161. 
Growing  in  California.  164. 
87.  Alfalfa.  165. 
111.  The  Use  of  Lime  and  Gypsum  on  Cali- 
fornia Soils.  166. 
118.  Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture.  167. 
117.  The    Selection   and   Cost   of    a    Small  170. 

Pumping  Plant. 

136.  Melilotus   tndica   as    a    Green-Manure  172. 

Crop  for  California.  173. 
127.  House  Fumigation. 

129.  The  Control  of  Citrus  Insects.  174. 

144.  Qidium  or  Powdery  Mildew  of  the  Vine.  178. 

151.  Feeding  and  Management  of  Hogs.  179. 

152.  Some    Observations  on  the  Bulk    Hand- 

ling of  Grain  in  California.  184. 

158.  Announcement  of  the  California  State  190. 

Dairy  Cow  Competition,  1916-18.  193. 

154.  Irrigation  Practice  in  Growing  Small  198. 

Fruit  in  California.  199. 

155.  Bovine  Tuberculosis.  201. 

157.  Control  of  the  Pear  Scab.  202. 

158.  Home  and  Farm  Canning. 

160.  Lettuce  Growing  in  California.  203. 


Potatoes  in  California. 

Small  Fruit  Culture  in  California. 

Fundamentals   of   Sugar   Beet   Culture 

under  California  Conditions. 
The  County  Farm  Bureau. 
Feeding  Stuffs  of  Minor  Importance. 
Fertilizing  California  Soils  for  the  1918 

Crop. 
Wheat  Culture. 
The    Construction    of   the   Wood-Hoop 

Silo. 
Farm  Drainage  Methods. 
The  Packing  of  Apples  in  California. 
Factors   of    Importance    in    Producing 

Milk  of  Low  Bacterial  Count. 
A  Flock  of  Sheep  on  the  Farm. 
Agriculture  Clubs  in  California. 
A  Study  of  Farm  Labor  in  California. 
Syrup  from  Sweet  Sorghum. 
Onion  Growing  in  California. 
Helpful  Hints  to  Hog  Raisers. 
County    Organizations   for   Rural   Fire 

Control. 
Peat  as  a  Manure  Substitute. 


CIRCULARS — Continued 


No. 

205.  Blackleg. 

206.  Jack  Cheese. 

208.  Summary  of  the  Annual  Reports  of  the 

Farm  Advisors  of  California. 

209.  The  Function  of  the  Farm  Bureau. 

210.  Suggestions  to  the  Settler  in  California. 
212.   Salvaging  Rain-Damaged  Prunes. 

214.  Seed  Treatment  for  the  Prevention  of 

Cereal  Smuts. 

215.  Feeding  Dairy  Cows  in  California. 
217.  Methods   for  Marketing   Vegetables   in 

California. 

219.  The  Present  Status  of  Alkali. 

220.  Unfermented  Fruit  Juices. 

228.  Vineyard  Irrigation  in  Arid  Climates. 

230.  Testing  Milk,   Cream,    and   Skim   Milk 

for  Butterfat. 

231.  The  Home  Vineyard. 

232.  Harvesting    and    Handling    California 

Cherries  for  Eastern  Shipment. 

233.  Artificial  Incubation. 

234.  Winter  Injury  to  Young  Walnut  Trees 

during  1921-22. 

235.  Soil  Analysis  and  Soil  and  Plant  Inter- 

relations. 

236.  The  Common  Hawks  and  Owls  of  Cali- 

fornia  from    the     Standpoint  of  the 
Rancher. 

237.  Directions  for  the  Tanning  and  Dress- 

ing of  Furs. 

238.  The  Apricot  in  California. 

239.  Harvesting  and  Handling  Apricots  and 

Plums  for  Eastern  Shipment. 

240.  Harvesting    and    Handling    Pears    for 

Eastern   Shipment. 

241.  Harvesting  and  Handling  Peaches  for 

Eastern   Shipment. 

243.  Marmalade  Juice  and  Jelly  Juice  from 

Citrus  Fruits. 

244.  Central  Wire  Bracing  for  Fruit  Trees. 

245.  Vine  Pruning  Systems. 


No. 

247. 
248. 

249. 
250. 

251. 


252. 
253. 
254. 

255. 

256. 

257. 
258. 
259. 
260. 

261. 
262. 
263. 
264. 

265. 
266. 

267. 

268. 

269. 
270. 
271. 

272. 

273. 

275. 


Colonization  and  Rural  Development. 

Some  Common  Errors  in  Vine  Pruni»g 
and  Their  Remedies. 

Replacing  Missing  Vines. 

Measurement  of  Irrigation  Water  on 
the  Farm. 

Recommendations  Concerning  the  Com- 
mon Diseases  and  Parasites  of 
Poultry   in    California. 

Supports  for  Vines. 

Vineyard  Plans. 

The  Use  of  Artificial  Light  to  Increase 
Winter  Egg  Production. 

Leguminous  Plants  as  Organic  Fertil- 
izer in  California  Agriculture. 

The  Control  of  Wild  Morning  Glory. 

The  Small-Seeded  Horse  Bean. 

Thinning  Deciduous  Fruits. 

Pear  By-products. 

A  Selected  List  of  References  Relating 
to  Irrigation  in  California. 

Sewing  Grain  Sacks. 

Cabbage  Growing  in  California. 

Tomato  Production  in  California. 

Preliminary  Essentials  to  Bovine  Tuber- 
culosis Control. 

Plant  Disease  and  Pest  Control. 

Analyzing  the  Citrus  Orchard  by  Means 
of  Simple  Tree  Records. 

The  Tendency  of  Tractors  to  Rise  in 
Front  r  Causes  and  Remedies. 

Inexpensive  Labor-saving  Poultry  Ap- 
pliances. 

An  Orchard  Brush  Burner. 

A  Farm  Septic  Tank. 

Brooding  Chicks  Artificially, 

California  Farm  Tenancy  and  Methods 
of  Leasing. 

Saving  the  Gophered  Citrus  Tree. 

Marketable  California  Decorative 
Greens. 


